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Civil Rights Movement
Main article:
Civil Rights Movement
The
Supreme Court
handed down a landmark decision in the case of
Brown v. Board of Education
(1954) of
Topeka
. This decision applied to public facilities, especially public schools. Reforms occurred slowly and only after concerted activism by African Americans. The ruling also brought new momentum to the
Civil Rights Movement
.
Boycotts
against segregated public transportation systems sprang up in the South, the most notable of which was the
Montgomery Bus Boycott
.
Civil rights groups such as the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
(SCLC) organized across the South with tactics such as boycotts, voter registration campaigns,
Freedom Rides
and other nonviolent direct action, such as marches, pickets and sit-ins to mobilize around issues of equal access and voting rights. Southern segregationists fought back to block reform. The conflict grew to involve steadily escalating physical violence, bombings and intimidation by Southern whites. Law enforcement responded to protesters with batons, electric cattle prods, fire hoses, attack dogs and mass arrests.
In
Virginia
, state legislators, school board members and other public officials mounted a campaign of obstructionism and outright defiance to integration called
Massive Resistance
. It entailed a series of actions to deny state funding to integrated schools and instead fund privately run "segregation academies" for white students.
Farmville, Virginia
, in
Prince Edward County
, was one of the plaintiff African-American communities involved in the 1954
Brown v. Board of Education
Supreme Court decision. As a last-ditch effort to avoid court-ordered desegregation, officials in the county shut down the county's entire public school system in 1959 and it remained closed for five years.
[166]
White students were able to attend private schools established by the community for the sole purpose of circumventing integration. The largely black rural population of the county had little recourse. Some families were split up as parents sent their children to live with relatives in other locales to attend public school; but the majority of Prince Edward's more than 2,000 black children, as well as many poor whites, simply remained unschooled until federal court action forced the schools to reopen five years later.
Dr.
Martin Luther King
, Jr. delivers his famous "
I Have a Dream
" speech during the March on Washington
Perhaps the high point of the Civil Rights Movement was the 1963
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
, which brought more than 250,000 marchers to the grounds of the
Lincoln Memorial
and the
National Mall
in
Washington, D.C.
, to speak out for an end to southern racial violence and police brutality, equal opportunity in employment, equal access in education and public accommodations. The organizers of the march were called the "
Big Six
" of the Civil Rights Movement:
Bayard Rustin
the strategist who has been called the "invisible man" of the Civil Rights Movement; labor organizer and initiator of the march, A. Phillip Randolph;
Roy Wilkins
of the NAACP;
Whitney Young, Jr.
, of the
National Urban League
;
Martin Luther King, Jr.
, of the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
(SCLC);
James Farmer
of the
Congress on Racial Equality
(CORE); and
John Lewis
of the
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC). Also active behind the scenes and sharing the podium with Dr. King was
Dorothy Height
, head of the It was at this event, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, that King delivered his historic "
I Have a Dream
" speech.
This march, the 1963
Birmingham Children's Crusade
, and other events were credited with putting pressure on President
John F. Kennedy
, and then
Lyndon B. Johnson
, that culminated in the passage the
Civil Rights Act of 1964
that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions.
President Johnson signs the historic
Civil Rights Act of 1964
.
The "Mississippi Freedom Summer" of 1964 brought thousands of idealistic youth, black and white, to the state to run "freedom schools", to teach basic literacy, history and civics. Other volunteers were involved in voter registration drives. The season was marked by harassment, intimidation and violence directed at civil rights workers and their host families. The disappearance of three youths,
James Chaney
,
Andrew Goodman
and
Michael Schwerner
in
Philadelphia, Mississippi
, captured the attention of the nation. Six weeks later, searchers found the savagely beaten body of Chaney, a black man, in a muddy dam alongside the remains of his two white companions, who had been shot to death. There was national outrage at the escalating injustices of the "Mississippi Blood Summer", as it by then had come to be known, and at the brutality of the murders.
In 1965 the
Selma Voting Rights Movement
, its
Selma to Montgomery marches
, and the tragic murders of two activists associated with the march, inspired President
Lyndon B. Johnson
to call for the full
Voting Rights Act of 1965
, which struck down barriers to black enfranchisement. In 1966 the
Chicago Open Housing Movement
, followed by the passage of the
1968 Fair Housing Act
, was a capstone to more than a decade of major legislation during the civil rights movement.
By this time, African Americans who questioned the effectiveness of nonviolent protest had gained a greater voice. More militant black leaders, such as
Malcolm X
of the
Nation of Islam
and
Eldridge Cleaver
of the
Black Panther Party
, called for blacks to defend themselves, using violence, if necessary. From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, the
Black Power
movement urged African Americans to look to Africa for inspiration and emphasized black solidarity, rather than integration.
Post Civil Rights era of African-American history
Main article:
Post-Civil Rights era in African-American history
The first
African-American
President of the United States
,
Barack Obama
Politically and economically, blacks have made substantial strides in the post-civil rights era. Civil rights leader
Jesse Jackson
, who ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988, brought unprecedented support and leverage to blacks in politics.
In 1989,
Douglas Wilder
became the first African-American elected governor in U.S. history. In 1992
Carol Moseley-Braun
of
Illinois
became the first black woman elected to the
U.S. Senate
. There were 8,936 black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001 there were 484 black mayors.
The 39 African-American members of Congress form the
Congressional Black Caucus
, which serves as a political bloc for issues relating to African Americans. The appointment of blacks to high federal offices—including General
Colin Powell
, Chairman of the U.S. Armed Forces Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1989–93,
United States Secretary of State
, 2001–05;
Condoleezza Rice
, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, 2001–04, Secretary of State in, 2005–09;
Ron Brown
,
United States Secretary of Commerce
, 1993–96; and Supreme Court justices
Thurgood Marshall
and
Clarence Thomas
—also demonstrates the increasing visibility of blacks in the political arena.
Economic progress for blacks' reaching the extremes of wealth has been slow. According to Forbes richest lists,
Oprah Winfrey
was the richest African American of the 20th century and has been the world's only
black billionaire
in 2004, 2005, and 2006.
[167]
Not only was Winfrey the world's only black billionaire but she has been the only black on the
Forbes 400
list nearly every year since 1995.
BET
founder
Bob Johnson
briefly joined her on the list from 2001 to 2003 before his ex-wife acquired part of his fortune; although he returned to the list in 2006, he did not make it in 2007. With Winfrey the only African American wealthy enough to rank among America's 400 richest people,
[168]
blacks currently comprise 0.25% of America's economic elite and comprise 13% of the U.S. population.
The dramatic political breakthrough came in the 2008 election, with the election of
Barack Obama
, the son of a black Kenyan father and a white American mother. He won overwhelming support from African-American voters in the Democratic primaries, even as his main opponent Hillary Clinton had the support of many black politicians. African Americans continued to support Obama throughout his term.
[169]
After completing his first term, Obama ran for a second term. In 2012, he won the presidential election against candidate
Mitt Romney
and was re-elected as the president of the United States.
The post-civil rights era is also notable for the
New Great Migration
, in which millions of African Americans have returned to the South including
Texas
,
Georgia
,
Florida
and
North Carolina
, often to pursue increased economic opportunities in now-desegregated southern cities.
The Blues Brothers
(film)
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The Blues Brothers
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
John Landis
Produced by
Robert K. Weiss
Written by
Dan Aykroyd
John Landis
Starring
John Belushi
Dan Aykroyd
James Brown
Cab Calloway
Ray Charles
Carrie Fisher
Aretha Franklin
Henry Gibson
Cinematography
Stephen M. Katz
Edited by
George Folsey Jr.
Distributed by
Universal Pictures
Release date
June 20, 1980
Running time
133 minutes
[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
million
[2]
Box office
5.2 million
[3]
The Blues Brothers
is a 1980 American
musical
comedy film
directed by
John Landis
.
[4]
It stars
John Belushi
and
Dan Aykroyd
as "Joliet" Jake and Elwood Blues, characters developed from "
The Blues Brothers
" recurring musical sketch on the
NBC
variety series
Saturday Night Live
. The film is set in and around
Chicago
,
Illinois
, where it was filmed. The film's screenplay was written by Aykroyd and Landis. It features musical numbers by
rhythm and blues
(R&B),
soul
, and
blues
singers
James Brown
,
Cab Calloway
,
Aretha Franklin
,
Ray Charles
, and
John Lee Hooker
. It features non-musical supporting performances by
Carrie Fisher
,
Henry Gibson
,
Charles Napier
and
John Candy
.
The story is a tale of
redemption
for paroled convict Jake and his
blood brother
Elwood, who set out on "a mission from God" to save the Catholic orphanage in which they were raised from foreclosure. To do so, they must reunite their R&B band and organize a performance to earn ,000 needed to pay the orphanage's
property tax
bill. Along the way, they are targeted by a homicidal "mystery woman",
Neo-Nazis
, and a
country and western
band—all while being relentlessly pursued by the police.
Universal Studios
, which had won the bidding war for the film, was hoping to take advantage of Belushi's popularity in the wake of
Saturday Night Live
,
Animal House
, and the Blues Brothers' musical success; it soon found itself unable to control production costs. The start of filming was delayed when Aykroyd, new to film screenwriting, took six months to deliver a long and unconventional script that Landis had to rewrite before production, which began without a final budget. On location in Chicago, Belushi's partying and drug use caused lengthy and costly delays that, along with the destructive car chases depicted onscreen, made the final film one of the most expensive comedies ever produced.
Concerns that the film would fail limited its initial bookings to less than half those a film of its magnitude normally received. Released in the United States on June 20, 1980, it received mostly positive reviews. It earned just under million in its opening weekend and went on to gross over 5 million in theaters worldwide before its release on home video. It has become a
cult classic
, spawning the
sequel
,
Blues Brothers 2000
, 18 years later, which was a critical and commercial failure.